/*! \page page_pmt Polymorphic Types

\section pmt_introduction Introduction

Polymorphic Types are opaque data types that are designed as generic
containers of data that can be safely passed around between blocks and
threads in GNU Radio. They are heavily used in the stream tags and
message passing interfaces. The most complete list of PMT function is,
of course, the source code, specifically the header file pmt.h. This
manual page summarizes the most important features and points of PMTs.

Let's dive straight into some Python code and see how we can use
PMTs:

\code
>>> import pmt
>>> P = pmt.from_long(23)
>>> type(P)
<class 'pmt.pmt_swig.swig_int_ptr'>
>>> print P
23
>>> P2 = pmt.from_complex(1j)
>>> type(P2)
<class 'pmt.pmt_swig.swig_int_ptr'>
>>> print P2
0+1i
>>> pmt.is_complex(P2)
True
\endcode

First, the pmt module is imported. We assign two values (P and P2)
with PMTs using the from_long() and from_complex() calls,
respectively. As we can see, they are both of the same type! This
means we can pass these variables to C++ through SWIG, and C++ can
handle this type accordingly.

The same code as above in C++ would look like this:

\code
#include <pmt/pmt.h>
// [...]
pmt::pmt_t P = pmt::from_long(23);
std::cout << P << std::endl;
pmt::pmt_t P2 = pmt::from_complex(gr_complex(0, 1)); // Alternatively: pmt::from_complex(0, 1)
std::cout << P2 << std::endl;
std::cout << pmt::is_complex(P2) << std::endl;
\endcode

Two things stand out in both Python and C++: First we can simply print
the contents of a PMT. How is this possible? Well, the PMTs have
in-built capability to cast their value to a string (this is not
possible with all types, though). Second, PMTs must obviously know
their type, so we can query that, e.g. by calling the is_complex()
method.

When assigning a non-PMT value to a PMT, we can use the from_*
methods, and use the to_* methods to convert back:

\code
pmt::pmt_t P_int = pmt::from_long(42);
int i = pmt::to_long(P_int);
pmt::pmt_t P_double = pmt::from_double(0.2);
double d = pmt::to_double(P_double);
\endcode

String types play a bit of a special role in PMTs, as we will see
later, and have their own converter:

\code
pmt::pmt_t P_str = pmt::string_to_symbol("spam");
pmt::pmt_t P_str2 = pmt::intern("spam");
std::string str = pmt::symbol_to_string(P_str);
\endcode

The pmt::intern is another way of saying pmt::string_to_symbol.

In Python, we can make use of the weak typing, and there's actually a
helper function to do these conversions (C++ also has a helper
function for converting to PMTs called pmt::mp(), but its less
powerful, and not quite as useful, because types are always strictly
known in C++):

\code
P_int = pmt.to_pmt(42)
i = pmt.to_python(P_int)
P_double = pmt.to_pmt(0.2)
d = pmt.to_double(P_double)
\endcode

On a side note, there are three useful PMT constants, which can be
used in both Python and C++ domains. In C++, these can be used as
such:

\code
pmt::pmt_t P_true = pmt::PMT_T;
pmt::pmt_t P_false = pmt::PMT_F;
pmt::pmt_t P_nil = pmt::PMT_NIL;
\endcode

In Python:

\code
P_true = pmt.PMT_T
P_false = pmt.PMT_F
P_nil = pmt.PMT_NIL
\endcode

pmt.PMT_T and pmt.PMT_F are boolean PMT types.

To be able to go back to C++ data types, we need to be able to find
out the type from a PMT. The family of is_* methods helps us do that:

\code
double d;
if (pmt::is_integer(P)) {
    d = (double) pmt::to_long(P);
} else if (pmt::is_real(P)) {
    d = pmt::to_double(P);
} else {
    // We really expected an integer or a double here, so we don't know what to do
    throw std::runtime_error("expected an integer!");
}
\endcode

It is important to do type checking since we cannot unpack a PMT of
the wrong data type.

We can compare PMTs without knowing their type by using the
pmt::equal() function:

\code
if (pmt::eq(P_int, P_double)) {
    std::cout << "Equal!" << std::endl; // This line will never be reached
\endcode

The rest of this page provides more depth into how to handle different
data types with the PMT library.



\section pmt_datatype PMT Data Type

All PMTs are of the type pmt::pmt_t. This is an opaque container and
PMT functions must be used to manipulate and even do things like
compare PMTs. PMTs are also \a immutable (except PMT vectors). We
never change the data in a PMT; instead, we create a new PMT with the
new data. The main reason for this is thread safety. We can pass PMTs
as tags and messages between blocks and each receives its own copy
that we can read from. However, we can never write to this object, and
so if multiple blocks have a reference to the same PMT, there is no
possibility of thread-safety issues of one reading the PMT data while
another is writing the data. If a block is trying to write new data to
a PMT, it actually creates a new PMT to put the data into. Thus we
allow easy access to data in the PMT format without worrying about
mutex locking and unlocking while manipulating them.

PMTs can represent the following:

- Boolean values of true/false
- Strings (as symbols)
- Integers (long and uint64)
- Floats (as doubles)
- Complex (as two doubles)
- Pairs
- Tuples
- Vectors (of PMTs)
- Uniform vectors (of any standard data type)
- Dictionaries (list of key:value pairs)
- Any (contains a boost::any pointer to hold anything)

The PMT library also defines a set of functions that operate directly
on PMTs such as:

- Equal/equivalence between PMTs
- Length (of a tuple or vector)
- Map (apply a function to all elements in the PMT)
- Reverse
- Get a PMT at a position in a list
- Serialize and deserialize
- Printing

The constants in the PMT library are:

- pmt::PMT_T - a PMT True
- pmt::PMT_F - a PMT False
- pmt::PMT_NIL - an empty PMT (think Python's 'None')

\section pmt_insert Inserting and Extracting Data

Use pmt.h for a complete guide to the list of functions used to create
PMTs and get the data from a PMT. When using these functions, remember
that while PMTs are opaque and designed to hold any data, the data
underneath is still a C++ typed object, and so the right type of
set/get function must be used for the data type.

Typically, a PMT object can be made from a scalar item using a call
like "pmt::from_<type>". Similarly, when getting data out of a
PMT, we use a call like "pmt::to_<type>". For example:

\code
double a = 1.2345;
pmt::pmt_t pmt_a = pmt::from_double(a);
double b = pmt::to_double(pmt_a);

int c = 12345;
pmt::pmt_t pmt_c = pmt::from_long(c);
int d = pmt::to_long(pmt_c);
\endcode

As a side-note, making a PMT from a complex number is not obvious:

\code
std::complex<double> a(1.2, 3.4);
pmt::pmt_t pmt_a = pmt::make_rectangular(a.real(), b.imag());
std::complex<double> b = pmt::to_complex(pmt_a);
\endcode

Pairs, dictionaries, and vectors have different constructors and ways
to manipulate them, and these are explained in their own sections.


\section pmt_strings Strings

PMTs have a way of representing short strings. These strings are
actually stored as interned symbols in a hash table, so in other
words, only one PMT object for a given string exists. If creating a
new symbol from a string, if that string already exists in the hash
table, the constructor will return a reference to the existing PMT.

We create strings with the following functions, where the second
function, pmt::intern, is simply an alias of the first.

\code
pmt::pmt_t str0 = pmt::string_to_symbol(std::string("some string"));
pmt::pmt_t str1 = pmt::intern(std::string("some string"));
\endcode

The string can be retrieved using the inverse function:

\code
std::string s = pmt::symbol_to_string(str0);
\endcode


\section pmt_tests Tests and Comparisons

The PMT library comes with a number of functions to test and compare
PMT objects. In general, for any PMT data type, there is an equivalent
"pmt::is_<type>". We can use these to test the PMT before trying
to access the data inside. Expanding our examples above, we have:

\code
pmt::pmt_t str0 = pmt::string_to_symbol(std::string("some string"));
if(pmt::is_symbol(str0))
    std::string s = pmt::symbol_to_string(str0);

double a = 1.2345;
pmt::pmt_t pmt_a = pmt::from_double(a);
if(pmt::is_double(pmt_a))
    double b = pmt::to_double(pmt_a);

int c = 12345;
pmt::pmt_t pmt_c = pmt::from_long(c);
if(pmt::is_long(pmt_a))
    int d = pmt::to_long(pmt_c);

\\ This will fail the test. Otherwise, trying to coerce \b pmt_c as a
\\ double when internally it is a long will result in an exception.
if(pmt::is_double(pmt_a))
    double d = pmt::to_double(pmt_c);

\endcode


\section pmt_dict Dictionaries

PMT dictionaries and lists of key:value pairs. They have a
well-defined interface for creating, adding, removing, and accessing
items in the dictionary. Note that every operation that changes the
dictionary both takes a PMT dictionary as an argument and returns a
PMT dictionary. The dictionary used as an input is not changed and the
returned dictionary is a new PMT with the changes made there.

The following is a list of PMT dictionary functions. Click through to
get more information on what each does.

- bool pmt::is_dict(const pmt_t &obj)
- pmt_t pmt::make_dict()
- pmt_t pmt::dict_add(const pmt_t &dict, const pmt_t &key, const pmt_t &value)
- pmt_t pmt::dict_delete(const pmt_t &dict, const pmt_t &key)
- bool pmt::dict_has_key(const pmt_t &dict, const pmt_t &key)
- pmt_t pmt::dict_ref(const pmt_t &dict, const pmt_t &key, const pmt_t &not_found)
- pmt_t pmt::dict_items(pmt_t dict)
- pmt_t pmt::dict_keys(pmt_t dict)
- pmt_t pmt::dict_values(pmt_t dict)

This example does some basic manipulations of PMT dictionaries in
Python. Notice that we pass the dictionary \a a and return the results
to \a a. This still creates a new dictionary and removes the local
reference to the old dictionary. This just keeps our number of
variables small.

\code
import pmt

key0 = pmt.intern("int")
val0 = pmt.from_long(123)
val1 = pmt.from_long(234)

key1 = pmt.intern("double")
val2 = pmt.from_double(5.4321)

# Make an empty dictionary
a = pmt.make_dict()

# Add a key:value pair to the dictionary
a = pmt.dict_add(a, key0, val0)
print a

# Add a new value to the same key;
# new dict will still have one item with new value
a = pmt.dict_add(a, key0, val1)
print a

# Add a new key:value pair
a = pmt.dict_add(a, key1, val2)
print a

# Test if we have a key, then delete it
print pmt.dict_has_key(a, key1)
a = pmt.dict_delete(a, key1)
print pmt.dict_has_key(a, key1)

ref = pmt.dict_ref(a, key0, pmt.PMT_NIL)
print ref

# The following should never print
if(pmt.dict_has_key(a, key0) and pmt.eq(ref, pmt.PMT_NIL)):
    print "Trouble! We have key0, but it returned PMT_NIL"
\endcode

\section pmt_vectors Vectors

PMT vectors come in two forms: vectors of PMTs and vectors of uniform
data. The standard PMT vector is a vector of PMTs, and each PMT can be
of any internal type. On the other hand, uniform PMTs are of a
specific data type which come in the form:

- (u)int8
- (u)int16
- (u)int32
- (u)int64
- float32
- float64
- complex 32 (std::complex<float>)
- complex 64 (std::complex<double>)

That is, the standard sizes of integers, floats, and complex types of
both signed and unsigned.

Vectors have a well-defined interface that allows us to make, set,
get, and fill them. We can also get the length of a vector with
pmt::length.

For standard vectors, these functions look like:

- bool pmt::is_vector(pmt_t x)
- pmt_t pmt::make_vector(size_t k, pmt_t fill)
- pmt_t pmt::vector_ref(pmt_t vector, size_t k)
- void pmt::vector_set(pmt_t vector, size_t k, pmt_t obj)
- void pmt::vector_fill(pmt_t vector, pmt_t fill)

Uniform vectors have the same types of functions, but they are data
type-dependent. The following list tries to explain them where you
substitute the specific data type prefix for \a dtype (prefixes being:
u8, u16, u32, u64, s8, s16, s32, s64, f32, f64, c32, c64).

- bool pmt::is_(dtype)vector(pmt_t x)
- pmt_t pmt::make_(dtype)vector(size_t k, (dtype) fill)
- pmt_t pmt::init_(dtype)vector(size_t k, const (dtype*) data)
- pmt_t pmt::init_(dtype)vector(size_t k, const std::vector<dtype> data)
- pmt_t pmt::(dtype)vector_ref(pmt_t vector, size_t k)
- void pmt::(dtype)vector_set(pmt_t vector, size_t k, (dtype) x)
- const dtype* pmt::(dtype)vector_elements(pmt_t vector, size_t &len)
- dtype* pmt::(dtype)vector_writable_elements(pmt_t vector, size_t &len)

\b Note: We break the contract with vectors. The 'set' functions
actually change the data underneath. It is important to keep track of
the implications of setting a new value as well as accessing the
'vector_writable_elements' data. Since these are mostly standard data
types, sets and gets are atomic, so it is unlikely to cause a great
deal of harm. But it's only unlikely, not impossible. Best to use
mutexes whenever manipulating data in a vector.


\subsection pmt_blob BLOB

A BLOB is a 'binary large object' type. In PMT's, this is actually
just a thin wrapper around a u8vector.

\section pmt_pairs Pairs

Pairs are inspired by LISP 'cons' data types, so you will find the
language here comes from LISP. A pair is just a pair of PMT
objects. They are manipulated using the following functions:

- bool pmt::is_pair(const pmt_t &obj): Return true if obj is a pair, else false
- pmt_t pmt::cons(const pmt_t &x, const pmt_t &y): construct new pair
- pmt_t pmt::car(const pmt_t &pair): get the car of the pair (first object)
- pmt_t pmt::cdr(const pmt_t &pair): get the cdr of the pair (second object)
- void pmt::set_car(pmt_t pair, pmt_t value): Stores value in the car field
- void pmt::set_cdr(pmt_t pair, pmt_t value): Stores value in the cdr field


\section pmt_serdes Serializing and Deserializing

It is often important to hide the fact that we are working with PMTs
to make them easier to transmit, store, write to file, etc. The PMT
library has methods to serialize data into a string buffer or a
string and then methods to deserialize the string buffer or string
back into a PMT. We use this extensively in the metadata files (see
\ref page_metadata).

- bool pmt::serialize(pmt_t obj, std::streambuf &sink)
- std::string pmt::serialize_str(pmt_t obj)
- pmt_t pmt::deserialize(std::streambuf &source)
- pmt_t pmt::deserialize_str(std::string str)

For example, we will serialize the data above to make it into a string
ready to be written to a file and then deserialize it back to its
original PMT.

\code
import pmt

key0 = pmt.intern("int")
val0 = pmt.from_long(123)

key1 = pmt.intern("double")
val1 = pmt.from_double(5.4321)

# Make an empty dictionary
a = pmt.make_dict()

# Add a key:value pair to the dictionary
a = pmt.dict_add(a, key0, val0)
a = pmt.dict_add(a, key1, val1)

print a

ser_str = pmt.serialize_str(a)
print ser_str

b = pmt.deserialize_str(ser_str)
print b

\endcode

The line where we 'print ser_str' will print and parts will be
readable, but the point of serializing is not to make a human-readable
string. This is only done here as a test.


\section pmt_printing Printing

In Python, the __repr__ function of a PMT object is overloaded to call
'pmt::write_string'. This means that any time we call a formatted
printing operation on a PMT object, the PMT library will properly
format the object for display.

In C++, we can use the 'pmt::print(object)' function or print the
contents is using the overloaded "<<" operator with a stream buffer
object. In C++, we can inline print the contents of a PMT like:

\code
pmt::pmt_t a pmt::from_double(1.0);
std::cout << "The PMT a contains " << a << std::endl;
\endcode


\section pmt_python Conversion between Python Objects and PMTs

Although PMTs can be manipulated in Python using the Python versions
of the C++ interfaces, there are some additional goodies that make it
easier to work with PMTs in python. There are functions to automate
the conversion between PMTs and Python types for booleans, strings,
integers, longs, floats, complex numbers, dictionaries, lists, tuples
and combinations thereof.

Two functions capture most of this functionality:

\code
pmt.to_pmt    # Converts a python object to a PMT.
pmt.to_python # Converts a PMT into a python object.
\endcode

*/
